Effects of Acid Rain

Acid Rain Essay Many may ask how acid can just fall from the sky. However, it falls in the form of rain. Acid rain can be described as rain that is more acidic then regular rain. In scientific terms, acid rain has a pH lower then 5. 6, the pH of clean rain. As shown, clean rain has a pH less then neutral; carbon dioxide in the air interacts with rain causing the drop of pH. Acid rain has a couple different causes. However, pollution plays the biggest role in the creation of acid rain. The burning of fossil fuels from factories, cars, and power plants create fumes, which rise in the air and create acid rain.The two main chemicals in the making of acid rain are sulfur oxide and nitrogen oxides. Specifically in the United States, sulfur in coal creates most of the solutions being released by smoke houses. The production of acid rain all starts with reaction with water producing H+ ions. Regular rain, with CO2 as described above, produces one H+ ion and HCO3. When the production of acid rain occurs, the Sulfur dioxide is oxidized and is made sulfur trioxide. The equation of this is: 2SO2+O2 2S03. After oxidation, the sulfur trioxide combines with water to create sulfuric acid that then falls to the ground as acid rain.The equation of this is: SO3+H2OH2SO4. If these reactions just occurred, created acid rain, and didn’t hurt anything when it fell, it would go unnoticed. Too bad it isn’t all that easy. Acid rain doesn’t hurt humans too much, but hurts the environment around us as well as many buildings made of marble. For humans, acid rain’s only impact is that it may irritate our lungs. Also, the acid rain causes poor visibility in certain areas. Acid rain plays a much larger impact on the environment. For example, the effect it has on lakes and rivers. Most lakes have pH’s ranging from six to eight.However, the acid rain that gets absorbed in the soil around the water causes the pH to go lower. In a pond in Franklin, New York the pH got as low as 4. 2. The effect of acid rain is less evident in forests because in some cases acid doesn’t affect the growth of trees. The responsibility we have, is to stop or lessen the amount of acid rain that falls. There are a number of ways this is possible. First is to repair the damage it has already done, second is to clean the smokestacks and our exhaust pipes, and thirdly is to find new efficient and less pollutant fuel sources. The destruction that acid rain as made on marble can always be fixed. There are also techniques to fix lakes by a process called liming, where limestone is added to the water. However, liming is expensive and temporary. Because coal is such an efficient fuel source, it would be hard to change. A different fuel source is the best long-term way of stopping acid rain. Nuclear power is one of the best energy sources but can be extremely dangerous if any accidents occur. If an auto mobile industry were to publish an article about acid rain it would differ greatly from then ones written by environmentalists.The auto industry would steer away from the way cars produce very pollutant gas, and of course would mention how their car is made more environmentally friendly and that the cars they make produce less pollutant gasses. They would do this in order for customers to by their car, and not feel guilty about hurting the environment. For example, many car companies are making hybrid and electric cars in order for people to know they are buying a more environmentally friendly car.

Redemtive Vilonce in the Odyssey by Homer Essay

The myth of redemptive violence is one that is told throughout history. It is one in which violence is the creator. Whether it be creation of the cosmos, peace, or some other result, in this myth violence results in redemption. This myth has been imbedded in our society to such a degree that it is naturalized and accepted as the way things are without much reflection. For example, many Christians probably don’t contemplate the ways redemptive violence is at the heart of their religion. A classic example of the myth of redemptive violence is found in the elaborate poem The Odyssey. Many elements of violence and how we associate with violence are explored within the multitude of pages of this tale. In book nine Odysseus has to confront Polythemus, the Cyclops who is Poseidon’s son. Odysseus and his men where trapped within Polythemus’s cave, which had wine and other luxuries in it. But the Cyclops is intent on eating every last one of them and saving Odysseus, or â€Å"Nohbdy,† as Odysseus presented himself to the Cyclops, for last. Odysseus later blinds Polythemus with a burning stick, leaving him aggrieved and in pain. Writhing in pain, he opens the rock, letting Odysseus’s crew escape. This is just a primal form of the myth, but by injuring Polythemus Odysseys is released, illustrating the productive side of violence. In book ten Odysseus finds himself on the island of Aeolus, which is occupied by the witch Circe. She lures Odysseus’s men into her house and turns them into swine. Odysseus, who has an antidote to the witch’s drugs given to him by the god Hermes, is immune to the witch’s drugs and threatens her with the violence of his sword and she takes him to her bed where he persuaded her to change back his men. This tale within The Odyssey is one of violence such those Walter Wink wrote about in â€Å"The Myth of Redemptive Violence. † He writes, â€Å"cosmic order requires the violent suppression of the feminine and is mirrored in the social order by the subjugation of women to men and people to ruler. † Wink goes on to explain that this pattern can be found in Greek myths and in a range of other cultural expressions through history, right up to cartoons in modern day media. Central to this version f the myth is the suppression of powerful females, and their bodies are laid out to create the cosmos in some cases. The Odyssey provides a classic example: Circe, a powerful temptress, is subdued by Odysseus’s threat of violence, therefore placing Odysseus socially above her. Throughout the book Odysseus is faced with endless hardships. He is thrown through massive and relentless life threatening ordeals. He then comes home and finds that he must compete for his wife. These travails point toward paradoxes in the human condition. At times, we crave pain and it allows us to associate our inner evils and our violence, and that is exactly what The Odyssey does. As Wink stated in his analysis of a cartoon, â€Å"the ‘Tammuz’ element where the hero suffers – actually consumes all but the closing minutes, allowing ample time for indulging the violent side of the self. When the good guy finally wins, viewers are then able to reassert control over their inner tendencies, repress them, and re-establish a sense of goodness †¦Ã¢â‚¬  We get a good look at this process in The Odyssey, especially when Penelope asks, how do you move the bed? Odysseus replies, you can’t because I fashioned it out of a live olive tree, proving that he was truly Odysseus. The Odyssey is filled with redemptive violence, whether it be against Troy, Scally and Charibdys, Circe, and, most notably, the slaughtering of the suitors. The violence is not all just straight forward, there are power hierarchies, complex relationships, and other factors to account for in viewing violence in this incredible story.

Property Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Property Development - Essay Example With the help of a case example the paper will mainly highlight the merits of traditional residual valuation approach over other valuation methods. Property valuation and different property valuation techniques has been a subject of intense discussion between researchers, academicians and developers. Different approaches to property valuation have been widely contested between different stakeholders. The issue of property appraisal often takes socio-political color due to the range of stakeholders directly affected by the process. According to Williams and Ventolo (2001, p-65), market value means the most probable price which a property should bring in a competitive and open market under all conditions requisite to a fair sale, the buyer and seller each acting prudently and knowledgeably and assuming the price is not affected by undue stimulus. Though the theoretically property valuation is defined by some others Hamid (1996)"as means to interpret market without the personal bias, value, emotion and poor assumption", property appraisal is often looked from a personal perspectives of buyers and sellers. Kahr and Thomsett (2005; p-48) states that valuation is distinguished via attributes of properties and markets; further classification of value are based upon the priorities of investors or owners, including cash flow and potential rental income tax benefits or limitations and perception of future growth in market value. Principles that guide the valuation are: Progression: this principle implies that the value of property will increase due to market demand and better locality. Regression: this principle implies that opposite of above principle also holds true when the value of a property may decrease due to negative market sentiments. Conformity: The principle states that valuation of property tends to appreciate with the similar properties in a similar location. Substitution: This principle implies that a property's greatest potential market value is also limited by the valuation of similar properties in a similar locality. Change: This principle tells that all variables used for valuation tend to change resulting in changes in value of the property. Anticipation: This principle implies that valuation depends upon the expectation of future growth. Contribution: This principle states that the investment on an existing property may contribute in valuation, though it is not necessary that increase in valuation is equal to investment. Plottage: This principle implies that the consistency in ownership, zoning and usage of land tend to increase the value of land. Highest and best value: This principle states that the value of a land is maximum when the land is utilized in best possible manner. Competition: This principle implies that the valuation of a property varies according to supply and demand of properties in market. Property appraisal aims to determine different type of values such as market value, value in use, investment value, insurance and taxable value, and liquidation value, which gives rise to need of different valuation methods and standards. These valuation systems also vary in different countries according to their laws and economic practices. In, UK five valuation methods are used which are discussed in following sections whereas in US

Film Analysis of Jean-Pierre Jeunet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Film Analysis of Jean-Pierre Jeunet - Essay Example The comparative analysis of the two movies helps us to understand the technicalities used by Jean-Pierre Jeunet in establishing the themes for his movies. Thesis Statement: Jean –Pierre Jeunet uses the help of detailed storytelling and uses cinematic approaches for the establishment of the themes in his movies. The cinematic approach used by him differed in various outlooks according to the subject chosen by him. A Very Long Engagement: A Very Long Engagement by Jean-Pierre Jeunet is another master class created by him. The movie is based on French background and a superb piece of storytelling approach was followed by the director to set the story on pace. The director has taken the help of flash back to depict a part of his story and his class of mixing the two eras falls under a special genre (Hurley). Jeunet has been successful in depicting the memories of the French war by using stupendous location and the use of long shots through the muddy fields. The long shots is panne d at a fast pace with the help of Long cranes which signified the pace of the battle. The choice of exotic location throughout France helps to grasp the interest of the viewers. Locations like Paris, Brittany and Poitiers were used in the movie (A Very Long Engagement  (2004)). The battle scenes used in the movie are supposed to be inspired from the movie Saving Private Ryan. Though the movie is war based, yet Jeunet has been successful in depicting a well composed and a balanced portion of the story as a love epic. The screenplay used was optimally balanced and Jeunet used his master class to combine the two and deliver a master class. In the war scenes the use of sound has been critically and carefully used to give the viewers a raw feeling of the ongoing of a war. The sounds used in the sequence are of high quality. The director places the story in personal vision rather than trying to depict it as a historical epic. The use of color images from the start of the story helps the viewers to land into realism or better termed as cinematic impressionism. At the end viewers are left with multi hued memories. The camera angles used by Jeunet were also very much critical. Wide angled close ups of Tautou is used. The focal length and the height of the camera were carefully studied to get the best view of the shots of Tautou. The director uses a mix of cold colors in depicting the wartime trenches and the warm color to elaborate the peace time. The main tinge of color used in the film was that of the color brown while a patch of greenish brown was used in the war field. The color used is monochromatic and spots of other colors are used. In the scenes of the trench, the face portraying the soldiers is aimed to have a different image than the rest of the faces used in the movie. The aim was to provide a markup distinguish in the faces (Cinematic impressionism).The use of voice over has been carefully handled in the film and its dynamism in the tone of voice was crit ically appreciated. The audio mix used in the film is also stunning. The quality of sound is superb as the rain drops falling in the coats of the soldiers seemed almost real. The use of supplemental material in the film has also been solidly handled (Schager & Gonzalez). The tones used overall in the film are unrealistic and often ranges from golden to sepia to gray according to the varied situations and the plots used in the movi

Business management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Business management - Essay Example The book gives clear reflections encouraging the application of personal experience and critical thinking on these aspects of management. This paper is a report on some key aspects on this book. Very fundamental to this report are the aspects of individual differences and diversity and control and power within an organization. The book covers these aspects very comprehensively and in a clear way. 1.1. Aims and Objectives The aim of this report is to appreciate the presentation of individual differences and diversity in an organization and appreciate the aspects of control and power while ensuring that they are used effectively towards the realization of an organization’s goals. 2. Individual differences and Diversity This report appreciates the individual differences that exist in organizations. The differences exhibited by Different people in organization explain the differences of people’s behaviour in any organizational set up. This diversity is very critical to the understanding of employees in an organization. The fact that an organization is composed of different stakeholders of different cultural backgrounds, ethnicity, and religious affiliations should be understood from the onset so that they can be understood. This should be besides the personality differences. These differences best explain why different people respond to different circumstances differently. Mullins explains these fundamental differences comprehensively thereby assisting the managers and other stakeholders in an organization understand their employees including the government (2011). The understanding of the individual differences is the first step to ensuring peaceful coexistence and harmonious social relations among people of all walks of life brought together. People in an organization need to have a healthy and friendly environment that favours both work and social interaction. This cannot be realized in an environment where the individual divergences and diversity are not understood let alone appreciated. This understanding also minimises the conflicts that are likely to arise due to the diversity of cultures and other personality related differences. It should be understood very clearly that everyone in an organization has attributes unique to only him/her. It is these attributes that influence the behaviours of different people in the organization. The book provides a deep insight in to these differences and is a great tool not only for learning, but also the application by many organizations in order to develop the skills, talents and capacities of employees (Mullins, 2010). The diversity and differences between the different members of an organization also lends credence to the fact that every can best specialize in a given field. It is, therefore, important, upon this understanding that each individual be allowed to pursue his talents, abilities and skills to enhance his individual potential while at the same time contributing to the dev elopment of the organization. It is important to note that the employees are very important assets in any organization. As a system, they form a significant part of the organization without which the organization cannot perform. Therefore, understanding them and their differences lead to the appreciation of who they are and what they can add to the realization of the aims of the organization. An organization that does not understand its employees is one

Evaluating an International HRM Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words - 1

Evaluating an International HRM Strategy - Essay Example Furthermore, the training program should also be designed keeping in view the diverse needs of the new employees. The employees coming from UK to china should be provided training about the Chinese values, culture and language. Furthermore, the Chinese workers should also be encouraged to learn English in order to increase cooperation among the workers. The reward system should also be designed in an effective way in the joint venture keeping in view the individual differences of the employees. Moreover, the performance appraisal system should also be developed in order to evaluate and improve the performance of the employees. The retail sector has witnessed a tremendous growth and over the years and the number of retailers has increased significantly all around the world. There are not only large retailers operating in the major countries but there has also been a growth of many local retailers which are posing great competition for the large multinationals. Due to globalization, the retail industry has witnessed many changes as most of the retailers have outsourced some or most of their services to the third world countries. Similarly, the retailers have also tried to provide ease to its customers with the use of the advanced technologies. The customers can now place their orders online and get the desired products at their doorstep. Due to the economic downturn of 2008, the behaviour of most of the retailers changed and instead of focusing on quality they preferred those retailers which offered lower prices. This was particularly evident in the UK. In this report, the Human resource management strategi es for the joint venture of Tesco and Suning Commerce group will be discussed. Tesco is the leading retailer of UK and third largest retailer of the world (Tesco, 2012). On the contrary, Suning commerce group is the largest retailer of China and also has strong presence in Japan and Hong Kong.There will be

Trial by jury has no place in modern Britain Essay

Trial by jury has no place in modern Britain - Essay Example The system of jury trial has been related to the common law. In fact, Norman kings have promoted the specific process sending their judges ‘to preside at jury trials’ (Spooner 2006, p.88). In the above context, the objectivity of the court was ensured through the following practice: the public could choose ‘four people to sit with them’ (Spooner 2006, p.88). Magna Carta has enforced the specific rule in order to ensure that judge will not influence the jury (Spooner 2006). Saxons did not accept the interference of king’s judges with the jury, aiming to keep the court independence from the ruling of the king (Spooner 2006). Today, a similar approach can be used for justifying the non-appropriateness of jury trial in English law. Due to its structure, the English legal system ensures the objectivity in trial, at least at higher level than other legal systems worldwide where the use of jury in trials often causes severe problems in the court procedure. The presence of juries in trial has been, traditionally, considered as a measure for ensuring equality in terms of law, i.e. to ensure that the decision of the court will be fair both for the perpetrator and the public, meaning that no punishment will be imposed unless the person considered as the perpetrator has, indeed, committed the offense involved. It is for this reason that in trial with juries the defendant is given plenty of time in order to present all the evidence available; in this way it is ensured that the crime will be fairly and appropriately evaluated by the jury. In practice, the participation of juries in trials has led to ‘verdicts, which have protected the personal rights’ (Hosterttler 2004, p.155). However, it cannot be stated that trial by jury always lead to the correct verdict or that juries ‘protect the law’ (Hosterttler 2004, p.155). Such perception cannot be acceptable taking into consideration the involvement of other individuals in critical parts of each trial, especially the judge in directing the trial and the lawyers in presenting/ analyzing the evidence involved. From this point of view it could be noted that juries are not indispensable part of criminal law. In the English legal system this view could be also applied, especially since in the particular system, due to its structure and its principles is quite difficult to lead to failures in regard to the evaluation of evidence, minimizing the risks for wrong verdicts. Currently, criminal trials in the English legal system are based on the trial jury, but not necessarily. In minor offences, these that are heard before the magistrate’s courts, the offender has the right to choose between ‘a trial before the magistrate court and a trial by jury before the Crown Court’ (Erastus-Obilo 2009, p.41). On the other hand, in more serious offences, the offender does not have such option. The trial is heard necessarily ‘by judge and the ju ry’ (Erastus – Obilo 2009, p.41). Moreover, the power of jury as factors determining the cases cannot be ignored. In fact, the verdict cannot replace the judgment of the court, but the verdict is the basis for the development of the judgment. From this point of view, the current role of jury in the English legal system is critical. 3. Benefits and implications of the trial by jury The use of the jury system in England has been combined with the principle of liberty; more specifically, the presence of juries in trials in England reflected the liberty of people to participate in important issues related to the law, which, as its name notes, is common among all people in terms of

Is Criminal Behavior Determined Biologically Essay

Is Criminal Behavior Determined Biologically - Essay Example Some do believe that crime has a genetic disposition but I believe that any person, irrespective of their biological or genetic background, when faced with certain stress factors can commit crime. Since the very beginning of the 20th century, several social researchers have reported that Blacks tend to commit more crimes when compared to their White or Asian counterparts (Piquero and Barme,2008). In fact official statistics also support this claim since and the racial minorities are regarded to be more genetically disposed towards crimes than other groups. In the recent years the field of behavioral genetics has conducted massive studies to understand whether genes and crimes are related or not. Race studies, adoption studies and twin studies have suggested that anti-social behavior is linked to the genes. Experts believe that since things such as gambling, drug abuse, risk-taking behavior and pleasure-seeking show evidence of genetic influence and since all of these behaviors have the potential to initiate crimes; one may suggest that crime and genes maybe closely related (Baker et al, 2006). In fact the field of forensic psychiatry supports the idea that chronic criminals h ave mutations in their genes which are hereditary in nature. According to this these mutations have an effect on the autonomic nervous system which in turn reduces an individual’s ability to learn normal social forces in inhibiting criminal behavior (Mednick and Finello,1983). On the other hand, with regards to the Nature versus nurture theory, I feel that nurturing has profound influence on one’s behavior. The environment and stress factors that an individual is exposed to, has a great deal of influence on his behavioral outcomes. Some of these stress factors are poverty and drug abuse. The constant association of Black minorities to commit crimes is overrated. In fact,

Microeconomics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Microeconomics - Research Paper Example Abdullah (2007) has pointed out that â€Å"8 out of 10 people living in the UAE were born abroad as per the statistics available in 2005. Moreover, the percentage of non-citizen will reach 90 per cent by 2015†(Abdullah, 2007). At present, UAE is trying to reduce the number of expatriate workforce in the country by injecting more locals in the employment sector. This paper analyses the pros and cons of scarcity of manpower resources in UAE. Even though the major revenue source of many of the Gulf countries are oil resources, the case is entirely different for UAE. Business is the major revenue source for UAE. In fact UAE is the business hub of Middle East. Majority of the prominent companies all over the world has business units in UAE. Educated and skilled manpower resources are a must for the business units in UAE. The number of educated UAE locals is less than the demand created by the employment sector in UAE. In other words, supply of UAE labour force would become inadequate to meet the demands crated by the business sector in UAE. Under such circumstances, expatriate workforce is helping UAE immensely in meeting the demand for professionals and skilled workers in industrial and business sector. In short, scarcity of skilled workforce in UAE is helping UAE to bring professionals from all over the world to UAE soil so that the business sector will always get the services of skilled people from different countries. In other words, scarcity of workforce helps UAE to provide diverse workforce from all over the world to UAE business units. It should be noted that diversity of workforce is extremely important in current extremely globalized business environment. Scarcity of domestic workforce helps UAE to strengthen its trade ties with other countries. For example, UAE is successful in establishing string trade relations with India because of the huge number of Indians working in UAE. Dubai world, Dubai media city like big companies are

Quantitative Research Essay Example for Free

Quantitative Research Essay Introduction Quantitative research has been a numerical representation as well as manipulation of the observations for the objective about describing and explaining phenomena, which these observations reflect (Babbie, 2007). This has been used in lot of natural as well as social sciences, which includes biology, physics, sociology, psychology as well as geology. Research project where quantitative research would be most appropriate Research is an orderly investigation of the subject matter for aim of adding to the knowledge. With-in realm of the educational planning, several things have been always changing like structures of education systems, curriculums as well as text-books, mode of teaching, techniques of teacher’s training, amount as well as kind of provision to the schools like science laboratory, furniture, text-books, class-room supply, and so on. Widely used way to classify educational research study is for defining different kinds of research according to the types of information which they give. There have been several kinds of education research studies as well as there have been number of ways, in which they can be classified. The studies can be classified according to the topic where-by specific phenomena which have being investigated are used for grouping the studies. In the research on problems have been concerned with the educational planning, major educational research question may be subsumed under the three quantitative research techniques like correlational, descriptive as well as causal. So in the education planning quantitative research would be most appropriate Quantitative research usually uses techniques that are adopted from physical sciences, which have been designed towards ensuring the reliability, generalizability as well as objectivity. Such techniques include the techniques in which the research participants have been selected one by one from study population in the un-biased manner, standardized questionnaire or the intervention that they receive as well as statistical techniques used for testing the pre-determined hypotheses in regard to relationships in between particular variables. Researchers have been considered external towards actual research as well as results have been expected so as to be replicable no matter which has conducted a research. Strengths of a quantitative paradigm have been that their techniques produce reliable as well as quantifiable data, which have been often generalizable towards little large population. Quantitative measures have been usually much proper to conduct the requirements assessments and for evaluations comparing the results with a baseline data. Five quantitative methods There have been different kinds of quantitative research. For example they may have been classified as the survey research, descriptive, correlational research, causal comparative research as well as experimental research. All the methods are having their own typical features. Survey Survey has been defined as the technique about collecting the standardized information through interviewing the representative sample about certain population. In many cases the surveys includes direct contact with a population in the investigations (Chanimal, 1996). Descriptive Descriptive research includes collecting the data so as to test the hypotheses and answer the questions relating to the present status of subjects of a study. Correlational Correlational research determines if and to what degree the relationship prevails in between 2 as well as more quantifiable variables. Cause comparative Causal comparative research often establishes cause-effect relationship as well as it also compares relationship however cause might not manipulated, like gender. Experimental Experimental research usually establishes cause-effect relationship as well as does a comparison however cause has been manipulated. Cause, is the independent variable which makes a difference. Effect, is the dependent variable which is based on independent variable. Most appropriate method Survey research has been general in studies of the health as well as health services. Term survey has been used in lot of methods however often it refers to a selection of the much larger sample of the people by the pre determined population, which is followed through collection of the much smaller amount of the data by these individuals. Thus researcher uses information by the sample about individuals towards making few inferences about a wider population. General problem with the quantitative methodologies Situation in which the quantitative research might fail is if we are willing to explore the problem in a depth. Any quantitative research has been good in giving the information in breadth by the larger no. of units. However, if we are willing to explore the problem as well as concept in a depth, the quantitative methods have too shallow. For actually getting in the phenomenon, we are required to go for the ethnographic techniques, the interviews, in depth case studies as well as other qualitative methods. Recommendations for fixing a problem What if we have been doing when we are willing to look at both the breadth as well as the depth, or at both the causality and the meaning? In such situations, this has been best for using the so called the mixed technique design in that we uses both the quantitative for instance, the questionnaire as well as the qualitative for instance, no. of the case studies techniques. Mixed technique research has been a flexible approach in which research design has been determined through what we require finding out than through any pre-determined epistemological positions. In the mixed technique research, the quantitative or the qualitative components may pre-dominate or both may have the equal status. Possible to Mix the Quantitative Methodologies Integrating the quantitative research techniques lends the depth as well as clarity towards the social marketing programs. The combination of approaches has been compulsory due to the wide range about the data required to develop the effective communications. But potential for the problems prevails while attempting towards combining a divergent research paradigm; one can end up through not doing either kind of the research well. Such an integrative approach thus needs the research team with an expertise in both kinds of techniques. Using the so many approaches may also be very time consuming, lot much labor intensive as well as expensive. Other obstacle that would probably change as the social marketing gains in the usage has been that combining the multiple techniques has been still not accepted lot much as the viable research strategy, minimum in the main-stream of the public health circles. Conclusion To conclude, this paper describes the research project in which the quantitative research might be most appropriate. There have been different kinds of quantitative research. For example, they have been classified as the survey research, correlational research, experimental research and causal comparative research as well as descriptive.

Bednet Utilization Survey in the Philippines

Bednet Utilization Survey in the Philippines Bednet Utilization and Knowledge-Attitude-Practice Survey among Selected Barangays in 40 41 Malaria Endemic Provinces in the Philippines Survey Protocol Introduction: The Philippines has 80 provinces comprising 1,634 municipalities. These municipalities are further subdivided into barangays (villages) which is the smallest administrative unit. At the start of 2003, malaria was endemic in 66 provinces in the Philippines. The population at risk, defined at that time as the entire population of the province where malaria cases were found, was estimated to be 70,687,400. By 2010, malaria was endemic in 57 provinces and 843 municipalities in the Philippines. The population at most risk was 6,387,734, or 12.5% of the total national population. At this time, the population at risk was defined as the people living in barangays with stable, unstable and sporadic transmission based on the most recent stratification system of the National Program. By 2013, there was further reduction in the number of malaria endemic provinces to 53. Just 47 higher-incidence municipalities in 13 provinces contributed about 97% of the total malaria cases reported in 2011-2013 Malaria has historically been one of the 10 leading causes of morbidity and mortality in the Philippines. Over an 8-year period, and in particular, the recent years of 2010-2013 – there has been a significant reduction in malaria cases, annual parasite incidence (API) and mortality rates throughout most of the country (Malaria Program Review 2013). Incidence of malaria has declined rapidly due to the intensified strategies implemented in the endemic areas by the Philippine Department of Health (DOH) and Local Government Units with the support from The Global Fund (TGF), World Health Organization (WHO), Pilipinas Shell Foundation Inc. (PSFI) and other partners. Recent report indicates malaria cases to be less than seven thousand five hundred in 2013 down from more than twenty thousand cases at the start of the project. The national goal of malaria elimination by 2020, in the light of current developments, is attainable. Fine tuning the program strategies and activities can be f urther enhanced with the data gathered in this study. Review of Literature Insecticide treated nets (ITN) are an effective tool for preventing the transmission of malaria[Lengeler C. Insecticide-treated bed nets and curtains for preventing malaria. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004, Issue 2.]. Efforts promoting the use of LLIN are geared towards the broader objective of universal coverage, defined at the household level as the use of insecticide-treated nets by all household members regardless of age or gender, and with a coverage at the community level reaching at least 80% of those at risk [WHO, Insecticide Treated Mosquito Nets: A WHO Position Statement]. In a bednet utilization survey conducted in 2012 by Dela Cruz et. al, ninety-eight percent (98%) of households in the areas surveyed owned a mosquito net. On the average, there were 2.72 or roughly 3 nets present in every household. The survey revealed further that eighty-four percent (84%) of total sample population have slept inside a mosquito net the previous night. Also, approximately ninety-seven per cent (97%) of children 5 years old and below in the sample population slept under a mosquito net the previous night and approximately eighty-eight (88%) of pregnant women in the same sample population did likewise. This current survey seeks to determine the current rates of use and roughly validate such practice as revealed in the previous surveys. Objectives of the Survey: The survey aims to: 1. To determine the coverage and usage of LLINs by general populations, by pregnant women, by children less than five years of age in the target provinces, municipalities, and barangays identified. 2. To assess the interviewees’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices with respect to malaria. 3. Generate data for program monitoring and evaluation. The results of this survey will likewise be used as baseline for the 13 provinces to which change will be evaluated against in 2016. Key Indicators to measure: Proportion of population who slept under the mosquito net the previous night Proportion of children under 5 who slept under the mosquito net the previous night Proportion of pregnant women who slept under the mosquito net the previous night Percentage of population at risk covered by LLINs Proportion of population owning a mosquito net (ITN/ LLIN) Proportion of population who know the cause of, symptoms of, treatment for, and preventive measures for malaria stratified by people owning and not owning nets Study area and study population: The BUS-KAP will be conducted in a total of 41 malaria endemic provinces in the country. The 41 provinces will be divided into 2 groups of provinces with each cluster having a sample obtained from them. One group will be composed of 13 provinces while the other group will be of 28 provinces. The 13 provinces in the first group represent the provinces that will be covered in 2015 to 2017 under the GFATM New Funding Model (NFM) Grant. These are the provinces with a three-year average API of more than 1 per 1,000 pop. In these provinces, there are approximately 3,352,465 people living in the stable, unstable and, sporadic transmission barangays (population-at-risk). The second group of provinces of 28 is those with a three-year average API falling below 1 per 1,000 pop. These provinces will no longer be fully covered in the NFM Grant in 2015 to 2017. These provinces have a total at-risk population of 3,094,007. Study Methodology: The study will be a cross-sectional survey. The 41 provinces will be divided into 2 groups – one group with 13 provinces and the other group with 28 provinces. The group of 13 provinces are those with average 3-year API of 1 per 1,000 pop and above; the group of 28 provinces are those with a 3-year average API of less than 1 per 1,000 pop. The group of 13 provinces represents the provinces that will be covered under the NFM Grant in 2015-2017. From each group, only the barangays with stable, unstable and sporadic transmission will be included as source of the household samples. By definition, the people residing in these barangays within the provinces are the population-at-risk. Sample size will be computed using the estimated population-at-risk and household number in the identified stable, unstable, and sporadic transmission barangays. Both groups of provinces will have a sample of their own. The household will be the unit to be sampled or surveyed. The household number in the barangays will be obtained by dividing the population by 5, which is the estimated household size. The barangays in each group of provinces will be clustered according to stratification – a cluster of stable transmission barangays, a cluster for unstable, and another cluster for sporadic transmission. The household samples will be taken from the clusters of the stable, unstable, and sporadic transmission barangays in the provinces. A sample will be taken from each stratification area – a number from all stable transmission barangays, another number will be taken from the unstable, and another from the sporadic areas. The number of barangays per stratification area that are to be included in the survey is 30 (the minimum number statistically requested). and average number of households to be surveyed in each barangay is equal to total number of households per stratification area divided by 30. The barangays to be surveyed will be randomly selected. Likewise, the households to be interviewed in each barangay will be randomly selected. Sample Size: The sample size figures were produced using StatCalc of Epi Info 7. The factors considered in determining sample size are the following: (1) A desired confidence level of 95% (2) An assumed prevalence of 50% in the target population. (3) The Design Effect (DEFF), which expresses the increase of the sample size needed over that of a simple random sample as a multiplier. A DEFF of 2 will be used. (4) The desired precision, typically equal to one half of the confidence interval width. We will assume that an overall precision of 5% is desired. (5) A 10% non-response rate is also assumed Data Gathering: A team will be trained to conduct the interviews among the selected samples. The survey questionnaire form, attached as Annex B, will be used in the interviews. Two sets of questionnaires will be utilized. The first set is the household-level questionnaire that will be answered by the head of the household or, in the event that the head of the household is not present, the person next in authority who residing in the household will be interviewed. The questions to be answered pertains to household composition, characteristics of the house, household health seeking behavior, net ownership, net use, and others (refer to Annex A Questionnaire). The second set is the individual-level questionnaire that will be answered by all eligible adults ranging from 15 years old and above who are residing in the household and are present at the time of visit. The questions in this set pertain to knowledge and attitudes of the respondents. The trained team of interviewers will fill-up the printed questionnaires with the answers provided by the respondents Inclusion Criteria: For the household level questionnaire, the household head, father or mother, will be the eligible respondent. In the absence of either, any resident of the household above 15 years old may answer. For the individual level questionnaire, all individuals residing in the household at the time of survey who are above 15 years old are eligible respondents. Data Management and Analysis: The data from the completed questionnaires will be entered into excel software or other capable data management software. Means and proportions will be computed/ generated to establish the values for the identified indicators: Proportion of population who slept under the mosquito net the previous night Proportion of children under 5 who slept under the mosquito net the previous night Proportion of pregnant women who slept under the mosquito net the previous night Percentage of population at risk covered by LLINs Proportion of population who know the cause of, symptoms of, treatment for, and preventive measures for malaria Ethical Considerations: Confidentiality will be observed and maintained at all times possible. Data gatherers and encoders will be made familiar with the questions and its implications and will be trained on delivering the questions and handling responses gathered. Wherever possible, responses are coded and known only to the research team. All these measures are to minimize the risk of breech in confidentiality that may produce negative consequences to the respondent/s reputation or status. Further, informed consent will be utilized for the respondents of the survey. The respondents will be briefed on the purpose and process of the survey and only if they fully understand and agree to what was explained will they be considered as participant. This will be documented with a signed informed consent form. The data gatherers will likewise be trained in obtaining the informed consent form. Where appropriate, the questionnaires and informed consent form will be translated to the local dialect or dominant dialect understood in the community. The translated versions will be tested for understandability or validity. Review and clearance from a recognized Ethical Review Board will be sought. In addition, review and affirmation from the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples and other governing groups of the affected populations will be obtained as needed. Time Frame: The study will take about 4 months to complete and will be contracted out to a third party entity who will closely work with the malaria Technical Working Group spearheaded by the National Program Coordinator of the Department of Health. Budget: This conduct of this survey will be contracted out to a third party. Estimated budget and its breakdown are as follows:

Characterization of Lady Macbeth :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many have tried to define the character of Lady Macbeth, perhaps the most memorable character of Shakespeare’s legendary tale of murderous ambition, Macbeth. As the play opens and Lady Macbeth is introduced, her motives are not fully visible until her second appearance in Act II Scene 2. As her motivation is realized, it seems very detestable. As the play unfolds, it seems that Lady Macbeth is actually quite insane. In this essay I will attempt to delve into the character of Lady Macbeth and attempt to shed some light on her actions and role in Macbeth’s climax, and downfall.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Lady Macbeth first appears in Act I Scene V, she is reading a letter sent to her by Macbeth. When Lady Macbeth learns about the witches’ prophecy, she begins doubting that Macbeth has what is necessary to take advantage of this. This is best exemplified by theses lines â€Å"What thou art promised. Yet do I fear thy nature; / It is too full o’ th’ milk of human kindness† (Pg. 318, 15-16) in this passage she is suggesting that Macbeth is full of the natural human feelings of compassion and loyalty. She then takes the responsibility of Macbeth’s prophecy coming true. She claims that she will reprimand all that impedes Macbeth from the â€Å"golden round† or the crown. In another soliloquy she claims to give up her femininity in order to be better suited for the murderous deeds ahead. So Lady Macbeth has already begun a transformation into a person who is overcome by greed and desire.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Her motivation is now clear, she desires that Macbeth become King, undoubtedly for the power, wealth, and social domination that would accompany this position. Whenever Macbeth began to falter, she began to question his manhood, in an effort to manipulate him, which caused him to put away any qualms and do the dirty deed. Towards Act III an IV Macbeth begins to take charge, but Lady Macbeth is still in the background, making sure that Macbeth’s position of King is secured.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion I feel that Lady Macbeth is by far the most compelling character in the play.

Free Essays - Nuts that are not Nuts in A Book of Showings :: Book of Showings Essays

Analysis of Nuts Which Are Not Nuts in A Book of Showings    Note: Because of the specific nature of the text, I thought it might be useful to attach the whole of it on the cover page for perusal at leisure if you so desire. Below is the text from the Norton Anthology of English Literature (p. 295), and under that the assumptions I make in reading the text. The former is directly from the book, and as it is all on one page, I will refrain from noting that page every time I reference the text. If you wish examples, everything is below and will be treated as my point of reference in all situations. The latter are important so that I don't have to cover them in the body of the essay, as they are generally logical assumptions gleaned from the reading which I don't have the space to spend time explaining. They may be referenced for the proof, however.       And in this he showed a little thing, the quantity of an hazelnut, lying in the palm of my hand, as me seemed, and it was as round as a ball. I looked thereon with the eye of my understanding, and thought: What may this be? And it was answered generally thus: It is all that is made. I marvelled how it might last, for me thought it might suddenly have fallen to nought for littleness. And I was answered in my understanding: It lasteth and ever shall, for God loveth it; and so hath all thing being by the love of God.    In this little thing I saw three properties. The first is that God made it, the second that God loveth it, the third that God keepeth it. But what beheld I therein? Verily, the maker, the keeper, the lover. For till I am substantially united to him I may never have full rest ne very bliss; that is to say that I be so fastened to him that there be right nought that is made between my God and me.    This little thing that is made, me thought it might have fallen to nought for littleness. Of this needeth us to have knowledge, that us liketh nought all thing that is made, for to love and have God that is unmade. For this is the cause why we be not all in case of heart and of soul, for we seek here rest in this thing that is so little, where no rest is in, and we know not our God, that is almighty, all wise and all good, for he is very rest. Free Essays - Nuts that are not Nuts in A Book of Showings :: Book of Showings Essays Analysis of Nuts Which Are Not Nuts in A Book of Showings    Note: Because of the specific nature of the text, I thought it might be useful to attach the whole of it on the cover page for perusal at leisure if you so desire. Below is the text from the Norton Anthology of English Literature (p. 295), and under that the assumptions I make in reading the text. The former is directly from the book, and as it is all on one page, I will refrain from noting that page every time I reference the text. If you wish examples, everything is below and will be treated as my point of reference in all situations. The latter are important so that I don't have to cover them in the body of the essay, as they are generally logical assumptions gleaned from the reading which I don't have the space to spend time explaining. They may be referenced for the proof, however.       And in this he showed a little thing, the quantity of an hazelnut, lying in the palm of my hand, as me seemed, and it was as round as a ball. I looked thereon with the eye of my understanding, and thought: What may this be? And it was answered generally thus: It is all that is made. I marvelled how it might last, for me thought it might suddenly have fallen to nought for littleness. And I was answered in my understanding: It lasteth and ever shall, for God loveth it; and so hath all thing being by the love of God.    In this little thing I saw three properties. The first is that God made it, the second that God loveth it, the third that God keepeth it. But what beheld I therein? Verily, the maker, the keeper, the lover. For till I am substantially united to him I may never have full rest ne very bliss; that is to say that I be so fastened to him that there be right nought that is made between my God and me.    This little thing that is made, me thought it might have fallen to nought for littleness. Of this needeth us to have knowledge, that us liketh nought all thing that is made, for to love and have God that is unmade. For this is the cause why we be not all in case of heart and of soul, for we seek here rest in this thing that is so little, where no rest is in, and we know not our God, that is almighty, all wise and all good, for he is very rest.

Eulogy for Son :: Eulogies Eulogy

Eulogy for Son William was a very special person. His good qualities are endless. Since he was just a child, I always remember William sticking up for the family. When his sister, Lisa, was a baby, William would sit outside her room with a mask and cape on ready to rescue her in case she started crying. And, if William’s father or I were making too much noise, he was always quick to fly downstairs and tell us to keep quiet so not to disturb his little sister. That’s just the kind of person William was. He was a hero to all of us. As I look out into the crowd, I can’t help but see just how many lives William has touched. As a psychiatrist, but more importantly as a friend, William was able to come to the aid of those in need. He was a shoulder to lean on, always willing to lend a hand to help someone out, always willing to listen to someone’s problems and take the time to help resolve them. It would take me an eternity to list off all the special ways William has made a difference in my life. Whenever I was upset, whenever I needed someone, William’s sense of humor cheered me right up. No one can feel sad when William is around. I’ll always remember William as a person who was constantly finding humor in life no matter what the occasion. He was so full of life. It’s hard to imagine how I’m going to go a day without speaking to him because he’d call me every single day. I know he was a very busy man, but he would never forget to take the time to call me to see how I was. It’s the little things like that I’ll never forget about him. Although William’s death was sudden and came as a shock to all of us, I know in my heart he would not want for us to spend forever grieving. Rather, William would want us all to remember our favorite moments we spent with him. So, if you would all just take a quick minute or two to think about a happy time shared with him†¦ William’s life was far too brief, but he was able to accomplish many things.

Anthropology social relationships Essay

Social relationships in most cultures and societies impact heavily on how a person perceives their world. People create their social world but are also shaped by it, and part of this social world is the social relationships that are formed between individuals. These relationships vary in kind from family and kinship to friendship. Kinship and family are types of relationships that have been widely studied in the attempt to study and understand a culture or society. And whilst these are important, relationships of friendship also play a large part in the way the individual’s personality is shaped and how they view their social world. Relationships of kinship or family ties are generally unavoidable and are formed through generations of families or cultural ties. Tribes and small villages are a good example of this where the members of these social circles are in frequent contact with each other and are somewhat limited to the generations within the physical boundaries of their social world. The formation of these relationships does not require much effort and they are expected to continue even if transformed over time. Positive relationships can become negative and vice versa. Look more:  social process theories essay Within the classification of family ties and kinship, the individual’s ties’ with ones family would be described with him/her in the centre, his parents above, children and their descendants below and siblings to either side (Morgan, 1870, p.10). Kinship ties include those where an individual does not have close genealogical ties with another rather is related through an unexpressed social tie, marriage or other wider social circles. If you take rural villages as an example, the degrees of these relationships can be measured in a somewhat circular pattern, where immediate family is in the centre, followed by those related by marriage, and then the members of the village in various degrees of closeness. The ties of family are expected to continue even after death, i.e. the individual is still a son to his parents but is also a father to his children, a brother to his siblings, etc. If the ties of kinship are those of a wider social circle than that of family; then ties of friendship are to be considered in the somewhat grey area in the middle. Relationships of friendship are more informal yet private to some degree and are usually based on some common interest or sharing (Beer, 2001). This sharing is not limited to material objects, but also to thoughts and secrets; thus friendship is a relationship that is heavily dependant on mutual trust and loyalty as compared to blood ties of family or kinship. Aside from those with family, most other relationships can be created, sustained in some way or ended by the individual, and each relationship will have its effect on perception or the shaping of the individual and his/her world. It is as such a given that these relationships can be created or impacted on by the actions of the individual or both parties involved. In order for a social relationship to be established outside of the setting of ‘family’ many events and actions take place. Social relationships are important to the individual as well as their social world, these relationships are often the foundations of the individual personality. From a young age the first relationship would be with members of the immediate family, however as time passes, the social circle or boundaries per se, of the individual enlarge to include others. These relationships are created from different situations, a child’s first school friends, the relationships between parent and teacher, relationships of friendship between those who share mutual interest and those of work to name a few. These relationships can be established in several ways; the exchange of gifts, the sharing of interests, cultural beliefs and identity, or a shared interest. Gift giving being the easiest to understand can be condensed into the action of give and take between two or more parties. This process is not always a positive attempt towards the continuation, formation or beginning of a relationship as the refusal to reciprocate the gift giving can be also seen as an indication to end the relationship. Social relationships require a certain measure of give and take, gift exchange, secrets, conversation, and opinion. Gift exchange plays a large role in social relationships as it can be used in several ways; an indicator for the willingness to engage in a relationship, the intention to continue a relationship, etc. However, gift exchange has two parts, giving and receiving, and these actions have different results depending on the situation. Drawing on the article by Theodore Caplow (1982) on the connection between gift giving and relationships one can begin to understand the impact these actions have on relationships. Caplow describes the gift exchange as being mostly among kin, however he also mentions that gifts were also given among co-workers, friends and couples. Caplow described the gifts given and received between primary kin as being in a pattern where the gifts given from an older generation within family were likely to go downwards, i.e. more gifts were given by those older than 18 to those younger than 18. This process of gift giving and reciprocity is slightly uneven and occurs mainly among kin members. Parents do not expect much in the way of gifts from children and children only gift with what limited capability they have. However the gift giving changes in other relationships, for example, between couples who are dating or among friends. As such, the relationship between kin cannot be truly described as a relationship that is insomuch created as much as it is inherent simply to the birth of an individual, so when considering the process of creating social relationships, one must consider the relationships formed outside the circle of immediate family. Gift giving between individuals as mentioned above, is seen as a way to continue a relationship; one person gives a gift and expects one in return. To reciprocate and gift in return would indicate that one intends on continuing the relationship. Yet despite describing the action of gifting and reciprocity in the term of material gifts, it is not always material gifts that are exchanged. Gifts can be given to those one intends on keeping favour with the expectation of asking for something at a later date, which is not necessarily another material object, but it can be something like favour within a political setting. Positive social relationships also require ongoing maintenance and can be ended at any given moment by the actions of one or both parties involved for example in the case of two neighbouring Brazilian families in the town of Monte Verde where an old friendship ended in a feud (Descharmes et al. 2011, p349). In this case there remained a relationship, however it was a transformed, hostile relationship of revenge where one family would murder a member of the others and the opposing family would reciprocate with the same. This reciprocal opposition transformed the relationship from a positive relationship to one of revenge. In this case we see how a relationship is transformed, but transformations of social relationships can also be positive in weddings for example where two members of separate families are united and a new relationship is formed where those two individuals are now members of the others family. Marriage is a very common form of transformation for a relationship and is found in almost all societies and results in reciprocal rights between both parties whilst also creating a social process where new relationship are set up between the kin of both the husband and the wife (Brix, JH 2010, pp162). These transformations of social relationship occur often but with various results. In the formation of relationships of friendship, two individuals may move from being ‘acquaintances’ to ‘friends’. Beer makes the distinction between friendship and kinship; where kinship is usually used to describe close personal ties, not necessarily genealogical, and friendship is a relationship based on sharing of time, problems, plans, hopes and thought. As such with the sharing of secrets and personal thoughts, friendship is a social relationship that requires absolute loyalty and trust, as if the relationship is broken off; these secrets can be revealed to others. Over time, these factors affect a person and the way they shape their social world. If we consider that the individual shapes his/her social world and that this world in turn shapes them, we may also consider the effect social relationships have on this social world per se. Relationships between family or kin will shape a child in the early stages based on the culture and beliefs passed down from the parents or adults in the child’s kin circle. However as time passes, the social circle expands to include school peers and other adults. The biggest effect is usually from the friendships that are formed with others from a completely different kin circle to the individuals own. To go into a deeper understanding of the individual’s social world we must also understand their relationships. Drawing on the article by Ortner, 1993, on a high school graduate class, as a case study, we are given examples of some relationships that are formed and maintained. Ortner describes her high school graduate class and their sense of â€Å"community† during and after their school years. She goes on to describe the structure of â€Å"class† within the high school. this idea of a â€Å"class† system depicts the social circle or world that the members of these â€Å"classes† were a part of. These social circles are described as including members who had similar backgrounds or interests. Furthermore she goes on to describe the relationships that were maintained after high school. These relationships tended to run in the same circles as they had been during school years. So by analysing the social relationships of the individual we are given a deeper understanding of the way they shape their world. The social structure we give our world often is dependant on how we structure our relationships with others. The social relationships that alter the perception of social structure for one person may not always be applied with the same results for all people. This is due the many relationships we build and maintain with others over time. The formation of social relationships are created, sustained, transformed and ended with the actions of the individual and sometimes without. We may find ourselves in a relationship with others that has simply arisen through the relationship with kin or family. Yet these relationships help shape us and the way we crate our social world. These relationships are constantly in flux and changeable with the time that passes as a relationship can also change with the passing of time without many major or drastic changes. As such, these relationships play a major role in how we perceive our social world and inevitably our sense of self. Bell, S, Coleman, S 1999, The Anthropology of Friendship, Berg, USA Beer, B 2001, Friendship, Anthropology of, International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Elsevier Science Ltd, USA Caplow, T. 1982 Christmas Gifts and Kin Networks. Sociological Review 47 (3): 383-392. Descharmes, B, Heuser, EA, Krà ¼ger, C, Loy, T 2011, Varieties of Friendship; Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Social Relationships, V&R Unipress, Germany Morgan, LH 1870, Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family, University of Nebraska Press, USA Ortner, Sherry 1997 Fieldwork in the Postcommunity. Anthropology and Humanism 22(1): 61-80. Turner, V. 1964 Betwixt and Between: The Liminal Period in Rites of Passage. in J. Helm (ed.) New Approaches to the Study of Religion Seattle: American Ethnological Society pp. 4-20. Vaughn, L 2010, ‘Marriage and the family’, in HJ Birx (ed.), 21st century anthropology: A reference handbook, SAGE Publications, Inc., Thousand Oaks, CA

Tea and Social Class Boundaries in 19th Century England

Matthew Geronimo Professor Haydu SOCI 106 12 March 2013 Tea and Social Class Boundaries in 19th Century England How did tea rituals, customs, and etiquette reinforce social class boundaries in 19th century England? This question is relevant, in that it asks us to reflect on how simple commodities such as tea can distinguish social differences between classes, both past and present; it also allows us to ponder on how tea was popularized into the daily-consumed beverage it is to this day with people of all class backgrounds. In her book A Necessary Luxury: Tea in Victorian England (2008), Julie E.Fromer discusses how in 19th century England â€Å"new identification categories and new hierarchies of status developed along lines stemming from consumption habits, creating moral guidelines based on what and when and how one consumed the commodities of English culture,† (Fromer, 6). After discussing some origins of certain tea rituals such as low and high tea, I will elaborate on how those rituals influenced and reinforced social boundaries between the lower and upper classes; furthermore, I will analyze how certain tea customs and etiquette shaped the practice of tea-time between the lower and upper classes.There are variations on the origin of the afternoon tea ritual. â€Å"The accepted tea legend always attributes the ‘invention’ of afternoon tea to Anna Maria, wife of the 7th Duke of Bedford, who wrote to her brother-in-law in a letter sent from Windsor Castle in 1841: ‘I forgot to name my old friend Prince Esterhazy who drank tea with me the other evening at 5 o’clock, or rather was my guest amongst eight ladies at the Castle,† (Pettigrew, 102).While tea was already a luxurious beverage at the time, when to drink tea during the day became a national cultural custom. â€Å"The Duchess is said to have experienced ‘a sinking feeling’ in the middle of the afternoon, because of the long gap between luncheon and di nner and so asked her maid to bring her all the necessary tea things and something to eat – probably the traditional bread and butter – to her private room in order that she might stave off her hunger pangs,† (Pettigrew, 102).Upper-class citizens caught on with this trend, participating in a ritual that would define a nation. Upper-class families would participate in low tea at a good hour between lunch and dinner. â€Å"Manners of Modern Society, written in 1872, described the way in which afternoon tea had gradually become an established event. ‘Little Teas’, it explained, ‘take place in the afternoon’ and were so-called because of the small amount of food served and the neatness and elegance of the meal,† (Pettigrew, 104).Consuming food with tea during the day between meals might have speculated the English people for growing accustomed to eating too much during the day, but according to Marie Bayard in her Hints on Etiquette ( 1884), afternoon tea was â€Å"not supposed to be a substantial meal, merely a light refreshment. † She adds, â€Å"Cakes, thin bread and butter, and hot buttered scones, muffins, or toast are all the accompaniments strictly necessary. † The upper classes during the 19th century were known more for drinking more expensive and refined teas, such as those from China, Ceylon, or Assam.The wealthy and privileged groups of 19th century England took pride in their customs; with the custom of tea, they spared no expense in staying true to their idealized rituals. Low tea was a daily practice for the upper classes. Martha Chute created a series of watercolor paintings that portrayed daily life at the Vyne in Hampshire in the mid-nineteenth century. This particular 1860 watercolor (Pettigrew, 99) depicts a dining room table prepared for breakfast with the tea urn in the middle of the table and the tea cups laid out.The painting’s setting takes place in a very upper class room with portraits of upper class citizens and scenery artwork hung all around the room. Published in 1807, Thomas Rowlandson’s Miseries Personal (Pettigrew, 65) illustrates powerful upper-class men and women socializing while consuming tea to the extent that the men are all practically drunk because of drinking too much tea. From the illustration, the audience can see that these powerful men have no cares, worries, or concerns at all; they’re not worried about getting food on the table for their families.They are only concerned with having a good time with the somewhat disgusted women in the painting while they consume heavy amounts of tea, symbolizing their refinery and high social class status. Published in 1824, Edward Villiers Rippingille’s The Travellers’ Breakfast (Pettigrew, 77) illustrates members of the literary circle that idealized Sir Charles Elton, including Coleridge, Southey, and Dorothy and William Wordsworth, as they have breakfast in an inn, with the tea urn focused in the middle of the table. According to Mrs.Beeton in the 1879 edition of her Book of Household Management, â€Å"’At Home’ teas and ‘Tea Receptions’ were large afternoon events for up to two hundred guests. Tea was laid out on a large table in the corner of the drawing or dining room, and servants would be on hand to pour and hand round the cups of tea, sugar, cream or milk, cakes, and bread and butter,† (Pettigrew, 107). Beeton reinforces the notion that these products were expected to be present at the tea table for afternoon tea with the upper classes. For the upper-classes, afternoon tea could be taken out to the garden.In an 1871 graphic artwork titled Kettledrum in Knightsbridge, (Pettigrew, 106) the artist displays men, women, and a child socializing in a garden, with trees and flowers surrounding them, while they enjoy their afternoon tea. According to Pettigrew, the caption reads â€Å"In this form of aft ernoon party, ladies and gentlemen can mingle . . . it is certainly much better to talk scandal in the garden than indoors,† (Pettigrew, 107). From this context, Pettigrew hints that scandalous gossip was common in between people in the upper classes during afternoon tea, and that it was better to gossip outdoors rather than indoors.While the etiquette and customs of low tea can be reflected in the mannerisms of upper class breakfast with tea, â€Å"In 1884, Marie Bayard advised in Hints on Etiquette that ‘the proper time . . . is from four to seven’, whereas others advised ‘about five’, or referred to ‘small 5 o’clock teas’, (Pettigrew, 108). Staying true to the specific hours with afternoon tea was significant to the upper classes in order to preserve the expectations that came with afternoon low tea. â€Å"Guests were not expected to stay for the entire time that tea was going on, but to come and go as they pleased during the allotted hours.Most stayed half an hour or an hour but ‘should on no account stay later than seven o’clock’, (Pettigrew, 108). The relationships between upper-class families and servants were distinguished with tea. â€Å"Families who employed servants very often took high tea on Sunday in order to allow the maids and butler time to go to church and not worry about cooking an evening meal for the family,† (Pettigrew, 112). Tea was so relevant during the 19th century that Pettigrew notes how upper-class families would rarely take a break from it.On Sundays, instead of eliminating tea from the day entirely, upper-class families would substitute their afternoon tea for high tea, which included heavier foods to replace dinner, all for the sake of allowing their maids and servants go to church. Servants of the Queen reference her liking of tea in the 19th century as well. â€Å"In London, Queen Victoria introduced afternoon receptions at Buckingham Palace in 1 865 and garden parties, known as ‘breakfasts’ in 1868,† (Pettigrew, 115). One of Her Majesty’s Servants† is quoted in The Private Life of the Queen (1897), â€Å"Her Majesty has a strong weakness for afternoon tea. From her early days in Scotland, when Brown and the other gillies used to boil the kettle in a sheltered corner of the moors while Her Majesty and the young Princesses sketched, the refreshing cup of tea has ever ranked high in the Royal favour. † Various forms of artwork captured the ritual of tea-time during 19th century England.A photograph from the 1880s presents a clear black-and-white image of what tea time looked like for the wealthy; in this particular case, for the Prince and Princess of Wales as they socialize with the Rothschild family at Waddesdon Manor in Buckinghamshire, (Pettigrew, 114). In the photo, we see a garden tea party taking place, both men and women well-dressed, all sitting down in a straight posture except for the single servant, the tea table set with the tea urn in the middle, a tent set up, and even an umbrella placed at an angle to prevent any discomfort from the sun.While consuming tea was popular in the 19th century, the art and strategy of selling it as a valuable commodity grew in trend. Advertisements in the 19th century for tea advocated certain product brands, claiming that that specific brand was better than the rest, even hinting that they were a brand for more sophisticated, upper-class tea drinkers. An advertisement for Lipton, Tea, Coffee and Provision Dealer (Fromer, 84) attempts to differentiate regular tea drinkers from Lipton tea drinkers: â€Å"On the left, an illustration depicts two women smiling as they drink their tea.Their features are smooth and regular, their cheeks are pleasingly plump, and they wear bonnets over their fashionably curled hair. Their dresses indicate their middle-class wealth and fashion sense; they wear modest, high-necked gowns without e xcess frills or ornaments, yet the designs of their dresses reveal up-to-date fashion, with curving bodices, bustles, and narrow waists,† (Fromer, 83). In the advertisement, the choice to drink other tea besides the Lipton brand is reflected on their mis-shaped bodies, poor etiquette, and disappointing behavior. Tea and its consumption reinforced social class boundaries in 19th century England.In Mary Gaskell’s North and South (1855), tea consumption serves as a statement of people’s social class and their standards. â€Å"Throughout the changes in the Hales’ financial and social status throughout the novel, their tea drinking continues unabated, and despite the economies that they are forced to observe after Mr. Hale gives up his living, they never mention giving up tea,† (Fromer, 132). Fromer comments on Gaskell’s North and South (1855), marking how tea for upper-class citizens, such as the Hales, it too valuable in social status worth to s acrifice.Fromer continues â€Å"†¦their [the Hales] identity within the industrial town of Milton derives from their consumption patterns, their participation in the market economy of the city, the amount of money they have to spend, and the ways in which they spend it. † Mr. Hale is caught off guard and is petrified by Margaret’s story of a mill worker who has come to join them for tea. Margaret â€Å"Told [the story] completely; and her father was rather ‘taken aback’ by the idea of the drunken weaver awaiting him in his quiet study, with whom he was expected to drink tea,† (Gaskell, 285). â€Å"’Oh dear! A drunken infidel weaver! ’ said Mr.Hale to himself, in dismay,† (Gaskell, 286). Mr. Hale cannot handle the idea of having a low-class worker in his home, participating in his family’s afternoon tea. The very thought of it is inconceivable to him, especially seeing how Margaret invited the mill worker for tea. The working class was distinguished by having less etiquette and being not nearly as strict with their tea rituals as the middle and upper classes. Tea for the poor was still cherished, was still valuable, but as far as how refined they could be, based on their social class status alone, they constantly went through hard times on a daily basis. During the working day farm workers and labourers generally drank beer,† but in the 19th century, there was a drastic shift from beer being the common beverage workers drank throughout the day to tea. â€Å"All around the country, workers refreshed themselves with hot or cold tea – in factories, mines, offices and farmers’ fields, on railways, roads and fishing boats. Tea had become the best drink of the day,† (Pettigrew, 125). The poor and working class participated mostly in high tea, which was substituted for dinner. Meals throughout the day for the working class included tea. The first National Food Inquiry of 1863 discovered that little had changed for the working classes since the late eighteenth century and that farm labourers and home workers, such as silk weavers, needlewomen, glover makers and shoemakers, throughout Britain, started the day with a meager meal of milk or water gruel or porridge, bread and butter, and tea,† (Pettigrew, 98). Every day was a struggle for the lower classes. Many working class families started each day still hungry. They would be â€Å"sent off in the morning after a meager breakfast of potatoes and tea to walk several miles to their place of work.Lunch was dry bread with perhaps a little cheese in good times, and more potatoes and tea at home in the evening,† (Pettigrew, 124). While daily meal intakes were simply meant to fuel laborers to get through the day, tea was always considered a luxury, something that still connected them to the upper classes, regardless of how less refined their etiquette was. â€Å"Dickens’s stories are full of poor families, young apprentices, social outcasts, and those who survived from hand to mouth, just about coping in very mean lodgings that contrast markedly with the sumptuous breakfast tables of the upper and middle classes,† (Pettigrew, 99).In Elizabeth Gaskell’s novel Mary Barton (1848), Gaskell conveys the thought-processing that went into listing what was needed for working-class meals and the importance of tea: â€Å"Run, Mary dear, first round the corner, and get some fresh eggs at Tippings . . . and see if he has any nice ham cut that he would let us have a pound of . . . and Mary, you must get a pennyworth of milk and a loaf of bread – mind you get it fresh and new – that’s all, Mary. † â€Å"No, it’s not all† said her husband. â€Å"Though must get sixpennyworth of rum to warm the tea . . . †A watercolor painting by Thomas Unwins (1782-1857) titled Living off the Fat of the Land, a Country Feast (Pettigrew, 111 ) illustrates â€Å"high tea in a country cottage,† with what is depicted as a lower class family eating hams, cheeses, and baked bread while drinking tea. The painting portrays many people filled in a small cottage having high tea in replacement of dinner, with children playing on the floor, vegetables fallen from a sack lying on the floor, cats and dogs sleeping and jumping around, a man sneezing close to the ham, a woman drinking her tea out of a saucer while tending to a child, etc. the whole illustration is a mess. While refined tea was mainly consumed by the upper classes, the working class still treasured tea as a luxury, its value and worth could be tasted even with just a little bit of sugar. â€Å"In 1853, the Edinburgh Review wrote: ‘By her fireside, in her humble cottage, the lonely widow sits; the kettle simmers over the ruddy embers, and the blackened tea-pot on the hot brick prepares her evening drink.Her crust is scanty, yet as she sips the warm beverag e – little sweetened, it may be, with the produce of the sugar-cane – genial thoughts awaken in her mind; her cottage grows less dark and lonely, and comfort seems to enliven the ill-furnished cabin,’† (Pettigrew, 111). In an 1878 photo of a poor Victorian household during tea time (Pettigrew, 104), the audience can make out the small room in which they are all in, laundry drying on a clothesline, with some of the children not even being able to sit at the table, just sitting on a bench close to it against the wall.This photo demonstrates the difference in tea etiquette between the upper and lower classes, especially with what looks like the eldest daughter caring for the youngest infant on her lap at the table, this being unlikely at an upper-class tea table. Tea was just as imperative as a daily commodity as it was to the upper classes. â€Å"The poor household, therefore, represented a scaled-down version of the middle-class home, suggesting that ninet eenth-century histories of tea portray class as a matter of degree rather than kind.Working-class families aspired to the same values as the middle classes, responding to their smaller incomes by taking further measures of economy but not by sacrificing the consumer commodities that had become necessary to English everyday life,† (Fromer, 79). Tea served as a revitalizing commodity for all, even the elderly. According to Day from the Edinburgh Review in Tea: Its Mystery and History (1878), â€Å"It is not surprising that the aged female whose earnings are barely sufficient to buy what are called the common necessaries of life, should yet spare a portion of her small gains in procuring the grateful indulgence.She can sustain her strength with less common food when she takes her Tea along with it; while she, at the same time, feels lighter in spirits, more cheerful, and fitter for this dull work of life, because of this little indulgence, (Day, 75-76). While the wealthy upper c lasses had standards and expectations with their consumption of tea, the lower classes, even the poor elderly, perceived tea as a great luxury of worth that altered their everyday behavior. â€Å"Tea affected her (the poor aged female’s) demeanor, her manner, and her cheer, enabling her to accept her burden and work harder, being ‘fitter’ for the dull work life,† (Fromer, 83).Tea time for the working class wasn’t meant to be a socializing event, nor was it a strict ritual. â€Å"Tea drinking, according to nineteenth-century ads and histories of tea, replaced the vices that were typically found among the ‘humbler classes,’ including alcoholism, violence, and a lack of attention to domestic arrangements, with the values of domestic economy, respectability, good taste, thrift, and an appreciation for high-quality consumer luxuries associated with more-fortunate, middle-class economic circumstances,† (Fromer, 87).Within Gaskellâ€⠄¢s North and South, we get glimpses of Margaret Hale’s life as a younger girl. â€Å"She remembered the dark, dim look of the London nursery. . . . She recollected the first tea up there – separate from her father and aunt, who were dining somewhere down below an infinite depth of stairs; . . . At home – before she came to live in Harley Street – her mother’s dressing-room had been her nursery; and, as they had her meals with her father and mother,† (Gaskell, 38).Gaskell emphasizes the difference in settings in Margaret Hale’s life, contrasting the less refined and luxurious life she had â€Å"before she came to live in Harley Street,† to her now higher social status in Harley Street. Gaskell hints this with how tea was consumed between the two settings. More than simply differentiating the social boundaries created by tea through certain tea rituals, the etiquette of tea drinking of both the lower and upper classes reinforced these social class boundaries in 19th century England.English upper class etiquette did not just distinguish them from the poor, but also from other countries as well. A cartoon published in 1825 (Pettigrew, 84) points out the difference in manners and etiquette between the English and the French. The cartoon refers to the English custom of placing a spoon across or inside the teacup to express that the drinker does not need a refill, though the audience can see that the English characters in the cartoon have been refilling the Frenchman’s teacup multiple times in a humorous manner. Certain rules and expectations went into tea-time with the upper classes. Invitations to tea were issued verbally or by a small informal note or card,† (Pettigrew, 108). Many aspects and variations went into tea etiquette that defined the upper classes. For how to receive guests into one’s home, the Lady at Home and Abroad (1898) explains that for small tea gatherings â€Å"the host ess receives her friends in the drawing room as on any other afternoon . . . but when it is a case of a regular afternoon entertainment, she stands at the head of the staircase and receives as she would at a ball or a wedding reception. Like Gaskell’s North and South, novels such as Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights (1847) capture the norms and etiquette that come with upper class tea time and how those norms are broken and revealed through character reactions. â€Å"Within ‘Wuthering Heights,’ tea creates boundaries between characters, rather than erasing them. The rituals of the tea table cause Lockwood (and readers of the novel, to an extent) to feel isolated, unwanted, and threatened, rather than welcomed in and nourished as guests and as intimates,† (Fromer, 152-153).In a scene from Bronte’s Wuthering Heights, the character named Lockwood, an upper-class male, seeks refuge from an early snowstorm in Wuthering Heights. Young Catherine hesi tatingly admits Lockwood into Wuthering Heights and he accepts it as an ideal setting for tea. While Catherine attempts to attain a canister of tea leaves almost out of reach, Lockwood makes a â€Å"motion to aid her† (Bronte, 16), but she responds, â€Å"I won’t want your help . . . I can get them for myself. † Bronte continues with Lockwood’s narration: â€Å"’I beg your pardon,’ I hastened to reply. Were you asked to tea? ’ she demanded, tying an apron over her neat black frock, and standing with a spoonful of the leaf poised over the pot. ‘I shall be glad to have a cup,’ I answered. ‘Were you asked? ’ she repeated. ‘No,’ I said, half smiling. ‘You are the proper person to ask me. ’ She flung the tea back, spoon and all; and resumed her chair in a pet, her forehead corrugated, and her red underlip pushed out, like a child’s, ready to cry,† (Bronte, 16-17). Bronte use s this scene to underscore a significant aspect of upper-class tea tiquette: again, â€Å"Invitations to tea were issued verbally or by a small informal note or card,† (Pettigrew, 108). While to present day audiences of Wuthering Heights, Catherine’s behavior may have seemed rude, to Bronte’s audience in the 19th century, Catherine’s response to Lockwood probably seemed understandable because according to upper-class tea etiquette, in order to engage and participate in tea-time with someone, he or she needs to be invited first. In another scene from Wuthering Heights, Catherine plays hostess during tea-time with characters Edgar and Heathcliff at Wuthering Heights. The meal hardly endured ten minutes. Catherine’s cup was never filled; she could neither eat nor drink. Edgar had made a slop in his saucer, and scarcely swallowed a mouthful,† (Bronte, 97-98). Here the audience can see the difference in etiquette between the higher and lower class es, even if the difference in class is not too vast. â€Å"Edgar’s ‘slop’ in his saucer signals his unsteady hand†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Fromer, 162). â€Å"This moment of tea, which is supposed to bring people together and erase boundaries, instead emphasizes those boundaries and signals the end of peace and familial happiness,† (Fromer, 162-163).Again, Bronte distinguishes the class differences reinforced through the tea ritual and form of etiquette. Like Bronte’s Wuthering Heights (1847), 19th century novels such as Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (1865) delineates social class boundaries reinforced by tea etiquette. The story of Alice adventuring into Wonderland is a reflection of facing elements people are not used to; for Alice, what she believed was her forte was etiquette. Carroll thus plays on the idea of expectations; he assumes that we as readers, like Alice, have certain expectations of what a tea party offers, an d he continually frustrates those expectations through his depiction of â€Å"A Mad Tea Party,† (Fromer, 169). During the infamous â€Å"Mad Tea Party† scene, Alice encounters the Mad Hatter, the March Hare, and the mouse at their tea party. Alice expects to be welcomed at the tea table, seeing how â€Å"the table was a large one, but the three were all crowded together at one corner of it . . . † (Carroll, 60).But as she approached the table, the Hare and the Mad Hatter cried out, â€Å"No room! No room! † (Carroll, 60). Both audiences of the 19th century and present day may have found the hosts to be incredibly rude exclaiming that there is no room while there obviously was, but, again, we must remember principle etiquette: that guests must be invited to tea. Both Bronte’s Lockwood and Carroll’s Alice encounter tea setting and expect to be invited; therefore, they approach the hosts and proceed to the tables, yet both characters are actual ly unwanted from both hosts in each novel.Lockwood and Alice are characterized as being of middle or upper class in their own storylines and they both invite themselves to these tea tables where they were never originally invited to; and when they are confronted about it, they both are shocked. â€Å"At any rate I’ll never go there again! . . . It’s the stupidest tea-party I ever was at in all my life,† (Carroll, 68). Carroll reinforces Alice’s stubbornness an inability to realize that she was the one who violated the etiquette and customs of tea time by inviting herself to tea instead of waiting for an invitation from the Mad Hatter and the March Hare.The exchange between Alice and the Mad Hatter and March Hare exceeds levels of rudeness that audiences of both 19th century and present-day England would be appalled by. â€Å"I don’t think – † then the Hatter cuts her off, â€Å"Then you shouldn’t talk. † â€Å"This piec e of rudeness was more than Alice could bear: she got up in great disgust, and walked off: the Dormouse fell asleep instantly, and neither of the others took the least notice of her going, though she looked back once or twice, half hoping that they would call after her,† (Carroll, 67).While Alice storms off believing that the Mad Hatter and March Hare are in the wrong, Carroll’s use of depicting Alice looking back conveys that in her heart, perhaps Alice knew that she was the one who violate the proper mannerisms and etiquette of tea time. From Fromer’s perspective, â€Å"After feeling adrift and confused during her travels through Wonderland, Alice has finally stumbled upon a setting where she feels at home and thinks that she knows what to expect and how to act – at the tea table . . .She expects the boundaries that so clearly separate her from all of the other characters she has met to finally be overcome, so that she can feel welcomed and nourished as an intimate guest rather than an unexpected and unwelcome intruder,† (Fromer, 170-171). Tea rituals, customs, and etiquette distinguish people from one another, they sort them into groups labeled either poor or wealthy. â€Å"Teatime functions, in countless novels, as a moment of highlighting the boundaries between self and other, inside and outside, day and night – boundaries both within outside of the intimate realm . . Part of what makes this particular tea party ‘mad’ is the fact that it violates the boundaries of time just as much as it destroys expectation of hospitality and civility,† (Fromer, 172). Both Alice and Bronte’s Lockwood assume that simply by being part of the upper classes of society that they are entitled to respect from others; but as Gaskell’s and Carroll’s audiences have realized, having respect for others defines social status and influences social mannerisms and proper etiquette. Within Gaskell’s North and South (1854-55), the image of the tea table functions as a crystallization of English national identity and the various social classes that make up that national sense of self,† (Fromer, 129). Fromer analyzes North and South as a novel that distinguishes the different social classes in 19th century England and how their social statuses are formed and reinforced by through tea rituals and etiquette.Furthermore, â€Å"based on circulating cultural expectations of the social manners and consumption rituals performed during teatime, the English ideal of the tea table served as shared experience upon which to base one’s identity and to gauge the social status of others,† (Fromer, 129). â€Å"Tea, as a fluid constant in English culture, with its accompanying social rituals, was flexible enough to accommodate – and to mark – subtle differences in social status, to mediate these differences between groups within the English nation,† (Fromer , 12).Members of both the lower and upper classes participated in tea rituals; depending on their social class statuses, they were more than likely to participate in one or the other. Quite simply, the middle and upper-class members of societies engaged in afternoon low tea the majority of the time because of its origin to English royalty and the purpose to keep hunger away between noon and dinner meals. On the other end, the poor and working class members of society engaged in high tea, combining their dinner meal with tea in order to alleviate the time and costs of tea time in the middle of the afternoon.The working class did not concern themselves with strict and traditional customs and etiquette like the middle and upper classes did. They participated in high tea for the practical purpose of fighting off hunger while retaining a sense of dignity and luxury with the value and worth of tea. As put by Fromer (11): â€Å"Nineteenth century representations of tea highlight the role of the tea table in forging a unified English national identity out of disparate social groups, economic classes, and genders separated by ideologically distinct spheres of daily life. 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